The Pros and Cons of Standardized Testing Essay - 674 Words

Standardized testing is a down fall to many students but also an opportunity for many others. Standardized testing has its pros and its cons. It can be the make it or break it factor into getting into colleges you are hoping to attend or the scholarships you want to earn. Some people may have their opinions about the test, whether they hate it or not but the fact is that it’s here to stay. What exactly is standardized testing you may ask, it is a test which measures the knowledge among different students. There are many different standardized test in many different forms. High school standardized test include the SAT, ACT, and the awful dreaded FCAT. There are also standardized test in many different fields such as Medical (MCATs)†¦show more content†¦For this reason we give standardized test so admission committees can look at results from their standardized test knowing the students knowledge among other students. This is fair in most cases since all students are receiving the same material and are offered the same opportunity as the other students. Standardized testing has many cons but it also has its pros. Standardized Testing can be a guideline for teachers on what to teach their students and what they are learning and if they need help If they are falling behind. Since all students around the state and county take standardized test such as the ACT the SAT or the FCAT it can let parents know where there child stands compared to other students around the state. One major cause standardized testing has to helping teachers is that it allows us to track the students progression. For example it tells us if the student has improved over the years , stayed consistent, or has fallen behind. We can track this because students take test like the FCAT year-round which lets us calculate the progression of the student. Standardized test also lets us compare how boys are doing compared to the girls.(Margie) Standardized Testing has many cons compared to pros. The biggest con of all is the stress it puts on students and teachers alike. The stress it puts on teachers is that sometimes teacher’s teach according to the test because they want toShow MoreRelatedPros And Cons Of Standardized Testing801 Words   |  4 Pagescontroversial topic Since Middle School, I was not opposed to standardized testing. I thought of it as a way of testing us of what we have learned. Although, after reading some articles about standardized testing I am re-thinking the pros and cons. From personal experience, I thought of it as a challenge to pass them. But now that reminisce about it, I noticed some of the cons of standardized testing. I remember having a week or two dedicated for testing, and in case of students failing they had to take timeRead MorePros And Cons Of Standardized Testing1400 Words   |  6 PagesEven though there are many downsides to standardized testing there are still viable reasons why they are still being used today. One of the main reasons includes the easy and quick access of testing students. Standardized testing allows schools to quickly access a large amount of students at one time. This is also one of the cheapest ways to tests such a large crowd due to machinery that grades which results in low tests costs f or students. These tests also help by setting a national curriculum forRead MoreThe Pros and Cons of Standardized Testing1050 Words   |  5 Pageseducational world is standardized tests. All fifty states have their own standards following the common core curriculum. There are many positives and negatives that go with the standardized tests. A standardized test is any type of â€Å"examination thats administered and scored in a predetermined, standard manner† (Popham, 1999). These standardized tests are either aptitude tests or achievement tests. Schools use achievement tests to compare students. There are pros to standardized examinations as toolsRead MorePros And Cons Of Standardized Testing1025 Words   |  5 PagesWhat are standardized tests? Standardized tests are exams that are administered, scored, and interpreted in the same way for all students. Now there are many pros and cons of standardized testing however, I believe that public and private schools should just abolish standardized testing all together. These tests determine a student’s academic performance and each student is given the same test with the same questions and answers. These tests are designed to measure the students learning capabilitiesRead MorePros and Cons of Standardized Testing583 Words   |  2 PagesStandardized testing has its pros and cons I do not believe in it but I will give you proof for and against the testing. We will cover some the history and where the testing came from and why we do it. I will talk a little bit of how I feel about testing and how much we should focus on ho w the students do on the test. I have interviewed a few teachers that I had when I went to school and some personal friends that are teachers now and how it effects how they teach. Most historians trace the beginningRead MoreThe Pros And Cons Of Standardized Testing1491 Words   |  6 PagesStandardized testing was introduced by French psychologist Alfred Binet in 1905. The test originated because Binet was commissioned by the French government to create a tool to identify which students needed remedial studies. Over time, the standardized tests evolved into multiple different tests in multiple subjects for varying age groups of students. The tests were initially seen as a way to test a large sum of people with the same general questions to see an individual’s knowledge. Some peopleRead MoreThe Pros And Cons Of Standardized Testing1511 Words   |  7 PagesOver the years the educational system has faced various controversial issues, but the most recent one making a negative impact on students, is standardized testing. Standardized testing is a type of testing used to evaluate students academic abilities . It is a way to measure if standards are being m et but does not provide a variation in the type of administration based on the students needs (Sacks, 2000). In other words, all children are provided these test to track their learning progress basedRead MoreThe Pros And Cons Of Standardized Testing1100 Words   |  5 Pagesscience, history, and science. Then, every year, students typically take one big standardized test, or even more. These tests are claimed to give educators an objective that’s unbiased. Standardized testing supposedly helps identify the natural tendency of individual students, identifying skill development and progress. However, are these things what standardized testing really do for students? Standardized testing only measures a small portion of what makes education substantial. This means thatRead MorePros And Cons Of Standardized Testing1201 Words   |  5 Pages Standardized testing is all based on your performance as a student on a specific day, time and place. What it doesn’t show is how you perform on a day to day basis. These types of test can be given in any type of form that requires test takers to answer the same questions, and is then scored in a â€Å"standard† or consistent manner. Students should not have to take standardized test because of many reasons. As a human I have days where I’m tired and didn’t get enough sleep the night before or it isRead MoreThe Pros And Cons Of Standardized Testing704 Words   |  3 Pagesschool. But the majority can attest to saying that they all hate standardized testing and the week that it brings. Every student knows this week all too well. From having one to two tests a day and then shortly after not being able to function properly on the rest of the school day. Many students will say that they all hate the idea of standardized testing and wish it to be gone. The real question stands though: is standardized testing increasing the performance of students? The main argument against

A Short Note On Interpersonal Conflict And Deception

Two parts of interpersonal communication go hand-in-hand are conflict and deception. One can lead to the other and vice versa. Most people try to avoid both conflict and deception, but people must realize that they have benefits and are a reality in everyday interactions. The interplay of conflict and deception specifically harnessed my attention over the past few chapters. Interpersonal conflict is â€Å"an expressed struggle between two interdependent parties who perceive incompatible goals, scarce resources, and interference from the other party in achieving their goals† (Floyd, 2011, p. 350). To fully understand conflict, the definition can be broken down further. As Kory Floyd (2011) describes, â€Å"conflict is an expressed struggle.† A conflict is not fully present until one party’s feelings are aware to the other party. This can be done through both verbal and nonverbal behaviors. Conflict occurs between interdependent parties as Floyd (2011) explains. A disagreement becomes a conflict if both parties depend on each other in some way. For example, the relationship between a child and their parents is a relationship that has high interdependence. If there is no dependence between the two parties, Floyd (2011) does not consider it interpersonal conflict, which I personally found interesting. The next part of the definition dec lares that conflict is about the goals the parties perceive see as incompatible. Incompatible, means that both party’s needs cannot be met. However, FloydShow MoreRelatedEffects of Incarceration4009 Words   |  17 Pagesfrom behavioral problems, including hostile responses and acting out, deterioration in school work, drug problems. It was also found that 40% of these children, the same who suffered from emotional and health problems, suffered from interactional interpersonal problems, the most prominent of which included confrontations with mother and inability to relate to peers. In view of these immense socio-emotional problems in direct response to paternal separation, it is common for these children to developRead MoreEthnic Reproduction and the Amniotic Deep: Joy Kogawas Obasan13316 Words   |  54 PagesChapter 28 INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS Introduction and overview (p. 428) Affiliation: the need for other people (p. 428) Love and intimacy (p. 428) Relationships: definitions and varieties (p. 429) Voluntary/involuntary relationships (p. 429) Arranged marriages (p. 430) Gay and lesbian relationships (p. 430) ‘Electronic’ friendships (p. 431) Different types of love (p. 431) The power of love (p. 431) Is romantic love unique to western culture? (p. 431) An evolutionary theory ofRead MoreSyllabus1864 Words   |  8 Pagesbusiness decision-making and leadership practices. These areas reflect the mutual impacts of profit, non-profit and government organizations in the U.S. and globally on business stakeholders. 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The examination also requires a candidate to reveal an expert use of his interpersonal skills and the ability to apply said knowledge of the profession’s ethics and standards (Ontario immigration 2014). Furthermore,If a person owns his own clinic in the province of Ontario, he has to answer to The College of Psychologists of OntarioRead MoreEthical Misconduct7357 Words   |  30 Pagesoften nationwide were: †¢ Lying to supervisors – 26 percent †¢ Fair treatment of employees – 26 percent †¢ Improper / personal use of company resources – 21 percent †¢ Conflicts of interest – 20 percent †¢ Stealing / theft – 19 percent †¢ Lying on reports – 18 percent †¢ Sexual harassment – 18 percent Note: Respondents gave more than one reason, so the total of percentages will add to more than 100 percent. 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Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesDecision Making 165 Motivation Concepts 201 Motivation: From Concepts to Applications 239 3 The Group 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Foundations of Group Behavior 271 Understanding Work Teams 307 Communication 335 Leadership 367 Power and Politics 411 Conflict and Negotiation 445 Foundations of Organization Structure 479 v vi BRIEF CONTENTS 4 The Organization System 16 Organizational Culture 511 17 Human Resource Policies and Practices 543 18 Organizational Change and Stress Management Read MoreFilipino Adolescents in Changing Times*10342 Words   |  42 Pagesphysiological changes are mental and psychological development. Adolescents are confronted with changes and adjustments that are often associated with distressing emotions such as tension, confusion and uncertainty. Moreover, adolescents encounter conflicts as they rationalize and redefine their complex relationships with the people around them such as their parents, peers and the opposite sex (Ogena, 2001). Influences/Agents of Socialization A. The Family The family is seen as the major socializing

Murderer †creative writing Free Essays

It was an exquisite day. A 15-year-old boy called Tom who is in year 11 at Charlton high school. Tom is a skinny boy with brown hair and blue eyes. We will write a custom essay sample on Murderer – creative writing or any similar topic only for you Order Now Tom walks to school every school day. As Tom walked he thought back at the day he had yesterday. â€Å"It wasn’t bad† Tom said to himself. But there is always something in your self, which says opposite to whatever you say or do. It’s of course your mind and it said â€Å"No you didn’t you had an awful day yesterday. You killed a man!† Yes, Tom did kill a man and he is called Mr.Diver. It’s not because he wanted to kill him it’s because he had to if he want to see his mum and dad together. He wanted his mum and dad together since they divorced. They divorced when Tom was very little so he doesn’t have that much memory of his mum and dad together. Mr.Diver is Tom’s mum’s future husband. Tom hated Mr.Diver since he first met him. Mr.Diver is a fat man with hardly any neck. Mr.Diver is a bus driver. If you ask Tom what is his favourite day is he would say Friday because that is the day Tom meets his dad. Mr.Newton is his dad and there is a big difference between Mr.Newton and Mr.Diver maybe this is the reason why Tom hates Mr.Diver. Mr.Newton is a skinny man with long neck. Normally Tom and his dad spend Friday afternoons either playing football or go to a restaurant. In restaurant they talk about what happened during the week. Since Tom heard that his mum is going to marry Mr.Diver he thought he must stop this marriage if he doesn’t his dreams will be shattered. So he planned to kill Mr.Diver. He came up with a brilliant plan. The plan was to kill Mr.Diver when he comes around Tom’s house. But there shouldn’t be anyone in Tom’s house apart from Tom and Mr.Diver. The day came when Tom’s mother told Tom and Mr.Diver that they have to stay alone. That night Tom made a plan that he is going to stab Mr.Diver and he kept things normal as possible. He didn’t make sudden movements or speak to Mr.Diver too much because he never speaks to Mr.Diver normally. Tom kept penknives in his pocket and waited for exact moment to come. The moment came when Mr.Diver asked Tom if he want something to eat? Tom thought that when Mr.Diver is preparing the food he could go behind him and stab him. â€Å"Do you want anything to eat Tom?† asked Mr.Diver again. â€Å"Can I have a sandwich please?† said Tom. â€Å"I’ll make one quickly,† said Mr.Diver. When Mr.Diver went to the kitchen to make a sandwich Tom went quietly behind him. Tom stopped near the kitchen door for a few seconds and took two penknives out. Tom saw that Mr.Diver is showing his back to him so Tom seized the chance and walked behind Mr.Diver and stabbed him once in the back and once in the neck. Tom put the body in Mr.Diver’s car, which was a bit far away from Tom’s house so it would look like when Mr.Diver got on the car someone stabbed him. When his mum Tom said nothing he just watched TV. â€Å"Where’s Mr.Diver?† asked Tom’s mum. â€Å"Oh he left already,† said Tom. â€Å"You should go to bed,† said Tom’s mum. â€Å"Why what is the time?† asked Tom. He wants to keep things as normal as possible. â€Å"It’s ten,† said Tom’s mum. â€Å"Ok,† said Tom. At school Tom didn’t concentrate on anything apart from Mr.Diver. He wanted to find out if the police had found it out. Third lesson the receptionist came and asked Tom to take his things and come with her and Tom knew that it was about Mr.Diver. His mum was in the reception and she said Tom to come with her and tom asked why and she said that she’d tell him on the way. â€Å"Why did you come to the school? What’s wrong? â€Å"Mr.Diver is dead,† said Tom’s mum â€Å"Who did a such a terrible thing?† asked Tom. â€Å"That’s what police trying to find out. He was found in his car stabbed and the police things that someone tried to steal his car and didn’t succeed so they killed him,† said Tom’s mum. Tom was about to ask why didn’t they take the car but he thought better leave it. When he and his mum came to their house they saw that the police was in. â€Å"Don’t worry they just taking photos of the scene,† said Tom’s mum. Tom now felt that his next step was to tell his father what happened and say to him that he should speak to Tom’s mum and tell her exactly what happened and the reason for Tom to kill Mr.Diver and Tom believed by this his mum and dad would come together. The following Friday Tom met his dad and his dad asked him what happened to Mr.Diver and Tom told him exactly what happened and told him to say to his mum. His dad told him that he will talk to her and advised him to don’t kill any one again. The following day when Tom woke up he saw that his dad was with his mum and his mum was crying and asked Tom â€Å"Why did you do this? You should’ve told me that you don’t like Mr.Diver and you shouldn’t have killed Mr.Diver† † I’m sorry mum,† said Tom â€Å"Now on we’ll forget what happened in the past and thing of what will happen in future,† said Tom’s dad. How to cite Murderer – creative writing, Papers

Philosophical foundation of education free essay sample

Gary Althen, in the essay â€Å"American Values and Assumption† has shown some of the distinct features of American values and assumptions. While dealing with these ideas, the essayist has presented the main ideas and further supports his main ideas with supporting details. He even compares and contrasts the American cultures with that of other cultures. He begins his essay with the general concept of values. According to Althen, people share certain values and assumptions from the culture where they are grown and to some extent, some values are similar and some are different to each other. Mostly, in the matter of human nature, social relation and several other aspects, all the people have similar type of assumptions. He opines that a culture can be viewed as the collection of values and assumptions. Features of American values and assumptions: Individualism: American people have strong devotion towards individualism. They are trained from their childhood as a separate individual and they embody the concept that they are soul responsible for their destinies. The essayist has presented his personal experience of a mother who helps her three years old son to decide independently. She gives him some useful suggestions so that he could utilize his pocket money wisely (either get hotdog now or save the money now and by Orange Juice later). This story of mother and son is quite surprised for non-Americans because they don’t have any tradition of children of three to five having their own pocket money. This story is no more surprise for Americans sine they are grown up in such values. Taking the reference from Dr. Benjamin Spock’s famous book, Dr. Spock’s Baby and Child Care, Althen says that very few Americans are raised to believe that their personal destiny is to serve their family, country and god rather children are given the feelings that they can set their aims of life according to their inclination. Most of the American adults prefer to live apart from their family members if it is economically feasible. If not, they pay their parents for their rooms and board. When Americans encounter a  person from abroad who seems excessively concern about the family and parents, they feel the person is trapped or week or indecisive. The American idealized notion of individual freedom is neither dictated by government nor any external forces or agencies. But this American legitimized â€Å"individual freedom† is to be self-centered and lacking in consideration for other, especially non-Americans. The foreigners who understand the American notion of free, self-reliant individual will easily understand the following aspects of American behavior and thinking: For Americans, those are heroes who stand out from the crowed. Ex. Pilots Charles Lindbergh, Amelia Earhart, golfer Tiger Woods, Basketball player Michael Jordan Americans respect the people who become successful from his difficult situation like poverty, physical handicap. Ex. Booker T Washington, Helen Killer Many Americans do not show more respect to their parents as most people do in other part of the world. The parents fulfill their responsibilities to the children but when those children grow up they become independent. At that time, the child-parents tie may loosen or broken sometime. The phrases like â€Å"You’ll have to decide that for yourself(do for yourself what you want to be in future)†, â€Å"If you don’t look out for yourself , no one else will(no one is there to help you if you do not do anything for yourself )†, â€Å"look out for number one(try to be best, come first in the competition)†, â€Å"Be your own best friend (you are your own friend, believe on you)†, etc. are popular among Americans Competition: Americans see themselves in competition with others. They are taught to be a part of competition from their school. People who are in competition with other are often alone. Privacy: Maintenance of strict privacy is another feature of American culture. They think that people need some time to themselves or some time to regain their spent energy. They do not like the people who always want others companionship. This American attitude of privacy can be difficult for foreigners to understand. In contrast to open and inviting houses and offices, Americans’ minds have boundaries that other people are simply not supposed to cross. Equality: Americans believe in the idea as stated in the Declaration of Independent that â€Å"All Men are Created Equal†. Frequently, it has been experience that Americans violet the idea of equality in the matter of interracial relationship and relationship among different social background. They have a strong belief that no one is born superior to anyone else. â€Å"One person one vote† is American motto. The foreigners who are habitual to show more respect often overlook the way American respect other having higher status in the society. This American tradition is often misunderstood by the foreigners as disrespectful. Informality: Americans’ notion of equality leads them towards informality in their general behavior and in their relationship with other people. Store clerks and table servants too introduced themselves by their first name. They show their friendly and casual behaviors to the costumers and they are trained in such way. This American behavior may be shocking to other countries’ people who hold higher prestige in their country. The future, change and progress: Americans have less concern about history and tradition than future. They always look ahead. They believe that future is in their hand and hold the concept that a sensible person sets goals for future. A cross-culture trainer L. Robert Kohls says, â€Å"If you want to be American you have to believe that you can fix it. † This Americans’ attitude of progress and future contrast with the fatalistic attitude of many other cultures for whom, either God or some powerful people have control over their future. Time: Time, for Americans is a resource like water, soil, forest, minerals etc. that kind be utilized in human service. â€Å"Time is money† is a popular phrase. An ideal American is very punctual and is considerate of other peoples’ time. But, most of other non- American think that time comes and goes. Americans are often criticized by the foreigners for their scheduled life which is like a machine. The efficiency of people is closely related to their concept of time, change and future. Efficiency means to the work in less time with the less use of resource. That is why email has become widely popular Among Americans. Achievement, Action, work, and Materialism: The common way to praise one American by another is â€Å"He is hard worker†. The foreign visitors often remark American as hard worker. In writer’s view, those foreigners might have influenced by American movies where people are shown either driving in fast car or pursuing opposite sex. Americans like action. They believe they should be doing something all the time. They don’t entertain to sit idly talking with people. IF not anything, they remain busy making plans and arrangement for doing work later. The foreigners who are unaware about the American devotion to action often see Americans as always â€Å"on the go†, active, dissatisfied. Americans are materialist so spend freely on material goods. The things like PC, telephone answering machine, microwave oven, electric garage door opener, etc. were once considered to be luxuries but they are now developed as necessities for them. Sometime Americans are criticized as extremely materialist but for Americans it is natural and proper. Directness and Assertiveness: The saying like â€Å"Lets lay our cards on the table (put forward everybody’s idea)†, â€Å"let’s stop playing games and get to the point (don’t talk unnecessarily more rather focus in the required point)† are very popular among Americans mean they are very frank, open and direct in dealing with other people. Americans believe that conflicts and disagreements are settled down through forthright discussion among the people involved in. They don’t entertain the role of mediator. However, the role of mediator is being popular nowadays. The adjective ‘assertive’ is given to an Americans by other American who expresses his/her ideas frankly and plainly. What Americans call assertiveness, to that non-Americans think aggressiveness. Americans are not taught to hide their emotional responses. The displaying of the feeling like anger happiness, confused state while communicating with other is very usual. Many Asians feel embarrassed around Americans who are showing their strong emotion. But Latin Americans and Arab express their emotion more openly than Americans. For them Americans are cold and unemotional. But in some matters, Americans don’t express their willingness openly means to say that there are some limitations on their assertiveness. Japanese always tend to hide their emotions. For Americans, being honest is usually more important than preserving harmony in interpersonal relationship. They use the term like ‘Pushy’ or ‘aggressive’ to describe a person who is excessively assertive in expressing his opinions or making request. It is difficult to draw a line between acceptable assertiveness and unacceptable aggressiveness. Where DO WE Stand Lisa Davis In the article ‘Where Do We Stand’, Lisa Davis focuses on cultural differences in the use of personal space and on problems arises from these differences. As the article begins Davis has given an example about the personal space. After a Middle East man impresses with an American during their conversation, a Middle East man moves forward but the American slightly adjusts his posture, shifts his feet and edges backward. The language has distinctive ascents and confusing umlauts from cultural to culture, group to group, between the sexes with in a country. This situation has resulted a lot of possibilities for misunderstanding. The business has become increasingly international and population is multicultural. This has widely given the room for the breed of consultants who are capable of interpreting for globe-trotters of all nationalities the meaning and use of personal space. For instance, Sandra Snowdon, international business consultants says â€Å"Saudi Arabians like to conduct business discussion from within the spitting distance- literally where as Americans back up. † Cultures are idiosyncratic in their spatial needs. Japanese subways bring people close together as humanly as possible. However hand shaking can be offensively physical in Japanese office. The researchers and writer Mildred Reed hall says that Americans can even make their business counterpart uncomfortable in Japan with the kind of their direct eye contact which for Americans is very normal. The study of personal space got underway in the early 1950s when anthropologist Edward Hall describes a sort of cultural continuum of personal space. According to him on the â€Å"high-contact† side of continuum eye contact, touching, and similar are common practices among Mediterranean and American societies while standing at a distance about a foot. On the other end of the scale, in Northern European cultures, a lingering gaze may feel invasive, manipulative or disrespectful when a social chat takes place at a remove of about two and a half feet. In the middle of the rode United States, people usually stand about 18 inches apart for this sort of conversation. The misuse of space can call whole personalities into suspicion. The researchers have found that women who were asked to communicate from an uncomfortably large distance described their partners as cold and rejecting. Similarly, men were found to be irritated by their partners when they were forced to talk at closer range. Things may not be similar with in the country since the country may have amalgamation of ethnic minorities. According to Robert Sommer, spatial needs collide in the republics. She says that Estonians are non-contact people but Russians are high-contact. The Estonians say that Russian are pushy and the Russians say the Estonians are cold. Things are complicated in United States when dealing with children from different backgrounds. Such minor problems are very common because spatial behavior is automatic. It snaps into focus when someone does not play by rules. In fact, caution is not always unwarranted because an abnormal use of space can indicate that something odd is going on. Researcher has shown that when schizophrenic person approach another person, they often either get closer than normal or stay unusually distant. There are reminders that the human need for space is based in an animal reality: the closer you allow a stranger, the more vulnerable you become. The spatial differences among cultures points to something beyond self-protection. Anthropologist Edward Hall suggests that a culture’s use of space is also evidence of a reliance on sense over another. State Department export Bechtold says that conversation distances also tend to reflect the standard greeting distance in each culture. Americans shake hands then talk at arm’s length. Arab do a check-to-check social kiss and their conversation is close and personal. Japanese bow and talk to each other about the distance of two feet. On the other hand, need for more or less space may reflect something of cultural temperament. Spatial styles are very real no matter whatever the origin of the people is. It seems to get easier to acculturate to foreign habits of contact. Bechtold says â€Å"Personal space isn’t so hard for people to learn. Whatever is really harder is the business of dinner being served at midnight. † Time Talks, with an Accents Robert Levine In the present narrative essay, Robert Levine explores cross-cultural differences in concept of time and the intercultural conflicts and misunderstanding due to these differences. As he was working as a visiting professor in a Brazilian university, he experiences difficulties in adjustment because of different cultural values and beliefs on time. This Brazilian belief of time was totally different than that of his own for which he was accustomed to in the United States. Through this writing, Levine focuses on the importance of learning social belief on the in new culture to avoid intercultural conflict. Borrowing the idea from Jeremy Rifkin, Levine says every culture has its own unique set of temporal fingerprints. To know a people is to know the time values they live by. As he was planning for his career, ignoring his peers unwavering concept with the amount of money a job would pay, he turned to the temporal lifestyle for which he selected a university professor as his profession. His specialty was social psychology where the concept of time fascinated him as a child. His scientific journey on social time begun from Brazil where he was appointed as a visiting professor of psychology at the federal university. He anticipated the issues of language, privacy and standard of sanitation were difficulties in his adjustment in new society however they turned out to be false in comparison to the Brazilian stereotypical ‘amanha’ (tomorrow) attitude. Giving some anecdotes, he clarifies the Brazilian perception of social time. In one of the anecdote, he was scheduled to take his first class in the university at 10 o’clock to noon. By the time he reached in his class at the exact given time, only some few students were there. He could not take his first class in scheduled time one this next the students who were late were not worried about missing the class. The writer was bewildered with the people’s attitude towards time. He asked with several people about the time on the way to university but they were not similar. Even, the clock for public was not accurate. No people, he found were sharp in time. The head of the department was not punctual neither was the owner of the apartment who loved to keep other people wait for them for hours but could not wait for other for a single minute. During his year in Brazil, he was repeatedly bewildered, frustrated, fascinated and obsessed by the customs and ideas of social time that Brazilian sent his way. The writer found that the Brazilian tendency of punctuality as inseparably intertwined with cultural values and it is difficult to get the simple and clean answer when we enter in the web of culture. Cultural beliefs are like the air we breathe so taken for granted that they are rarely discussed as even articulated. But there is often volatile reaction when these unwritten rules are violated. Not beliefs are ingrained (that has existed for a long time therefore difficult to change) and subsequently hidden than those about time. Almost thirty years ago anthropologist Edward Hall labeled rules of social time the ‘silent language’. There is no dictionary to define these rules of time. Brazilian made the writer clearer that time is talking. But understanding what it was saying was no simple matter. After several years of temporal blunders, Levine designed his first systematic experiment about time in an attempt to understand Brazilian beliefs and rules about punctuality. From last two decades, the writer has been continuing his research both on the psychology of time and psychology of places. His research has involved from studies of punctuality to those about the broader pace of life. It has confirmed his earliest intuitions; that how people construct the time of their lives comprises a world of diversity. There are drastic differences on every level: from culture to culture, city to city, and from neighbor. And most of all, I have learned, the time on the clock only begins to tell the story. (Summaries of Additional Readings) Polite but Thirsty Yapling Tang In the present narrative essay Chinese essayist, Yapling Tang describes the cultural shock thet she and many other Chinese students experienced while living in United States. Tang focuses on the cross-cultural differences between her native Chinese and United States in non-verbal communication. (The ideas and writer’s techniques of this essay are important for developing own writing techniques. ) After 1979, many Chinese students have gone to USA pursuing higher education or research work. Right after they reached US, they exposed to novel and unfamiliar environment. Life was not easy for the Chinese students. When people go in the new land, the first and the dominant experience is perhaps the feelings of inadequacy. It is not only the inadequacy of knowing English language fluently but also the ignorance of what is appropriate and what is not in schools, on the bus stop, in restaurant, in stores or at parties. New comers have to face the consistent problems because of not knowing the codes of new language. For first few days Chinese students are like deaf mute in US schools by the new schools systems and like most of other, Tang too have experienced the cultural shock when she was in China in 1990. Tang was astonished to see her American classmate drinking soda and eating snacks in the class. In Chine, either in college or in elementary schools, students are not allowed to eat or drink anything. First, Americans often call each other by their first name either to friends, parents, teachers or relatives. Calling someone by their first name is taken as a sign of acceptance and friendliness. In Chine people are not call by their first name unless they are relatives or close friend. Being a Chinese, Tang felt very awkward in the beginning, when she was called by her first name. Second, Americans are very straightforward. When they want something they say â€Å"yes† and when they don’t they say â€Å"no†. But, Chinese often say â€Å"no’’ at first even in the second time as well not whether they want or not. It is needed to offer repeatedly something to someone and impose at last to him/ her. Third, modesty is another Chinese cultural norm. Unlike Chinese American do not consider excessive modesty a virtue. Americans praise instantly if something is good and criticize in the similar manner when fine something wired. Tang got used to with the American way of giving and receiving complements, after observing and experiencing. Fourth, in Chinese culture gift is offered just before they live and they do not open it infront of the giver which is considered impolite. But, Americans usually give the gift right after they arrive and they open it infront of the giver. Fifth, tip to taxi driver and waiters is an American culture. But in mainland china, Chinese people donot tip anyone. Because of cultural differences, when Chinese students forget to tip taxi and waiters in USA they feel embarrassed. In addition to suffering from cultural shock when dealing with external matters such as differences in food, climate, language, mannerism and communication, newcomers also suffer psychologically from status change and status loss. Most of the Chinese students have been academically successful and professionally well-established in China but when they come USA they had to work had to pay their tuition and living expenses. Many do the job as taking care of disable or elderly, babysitting, cleaning houses or working in restaurant. These students were university teachers, scholars and engineers in China, where people like these would never do such kinds of jobs. So, some of them feel a distinct loss of their status. As a result of Cultural shock, some Chinese students experience a painful social vulnerability. The trouble of looing culture and personal structure has resulted that only very few Chinese have developed a close relation with Americans. But most of them make a co-national ‘subcultural’ which causes barrier for deep intercultural contact. The other symptoms of cultural shocks are: absent mindedness; a feeling of hopelessness; fits of anger; excessive fear of being cheated, robbed or injured and finally eager to return home. Life is never smooth sailing. It requires a continual series of adaptations to new environment. For this, newcomers have to face the unfamiliar cultural settings squarely and try to cope with them. It is even necessary to learn new information and new responses and skills. But by doing so we can broaden our perspectives, promote personal growth, gain insight into the culture of origin through a contrast with other world views and ultimately successfully adapt to our new world. Friends and Strangers -Margaret K. (Omar) Nydell In the present essay, Margaret K. (Omar) Nydell discusses differences between Arab and Western (North American and European) cultures in the concept of friendship, misunderstanding due to this diverse concept of friendship and some possible ideas that could help to reduce the intercultural conflicts. The concept of Friendship Relations between people are very personalized in the Arab culture. The Arab concept of friendship is quite different from that in western. Westerns, especially Americans tend to think of a friend as someone whose company they enjoy. But it considered being poor form of friendship to expect something of gain from that relation. Arabs do enjoy the company of friends. However, fulfillment of certain duties in friendship is most. This difference in expectation among the cultures may lead to misunderstanding. In order to avoid such feelings, we must bear in mind what is meant by both sides when one person calls another â€Å"friend†. Reciprocal favors For an Arab, good manner is that who never openly refuse a request from a friend. Your help to the friends, in their request helps to flourish the relationship. If the request in unreasonable, illegal, or too difficult it’s better to suggest him about the possible out-come. The relationship between Egyptian university student and his American professor broke because of misunderstanding the concept of friendship due to cultural differences and so was the case between American military officer and his neighbor in Morocco. In western culture actions are far more important and more valued than words. In the Arab culture, an oral promise has its own value as a response. When Arabs give a yes answer to your request, they are not necessarily certain that the action will or can be carried out. Sometime an Arab asks another person to do some work for him and he regards himself indebted to return the favor in the future. It is an Arab tradition to expect loyalty from anyone who is considered a friend. Therefore in Arab culture the friend is not justified in becoming indignant when asked for favor since, it should be understood from the beginning that giving and receiving favors is an inherent part of relationship. Introduction Arabs are very quick to determine the other person’s social status and connections when they meet. They normally give more information about themselves than a westerners does. They may indulge in self-praise and praise of their relatives and family. When westerners meet someone for the first time they talk about education, profession and interest rather than personal information. To Arabs, the information about family and social connections is important than the information about themselves. Visiting Patterns Arabs feel that good friend should see each other often, at least every few days, and they offer many invitations. Westerners who have Arab friends sometime feel upset with the frequent contact and wonder if they will ever have any privacy. There is no concept of privacy among Arab. By far the most popular form of entertainment in the Arab Word is conversation. They enjoy long conversation with shared meal or many coffees. You will be expected reciprocal invitation. In United States one has more privacy but in Arab society people don’t really understand why westerners want to be alone. If you request for privacy people will wonder if someone offended you, if you don’t like them, or if you are sick. If you are not willing to increase the frequency or intensity of your personal contacts, you may hurt your friends’ feelings and damage the relationship. Some westerners who know about the time consuming relationship decide to keep acquaintance at a distance. If you accept no favor, you will eventually ask for none and you will have much more time for yourself but, you will have no Arab friends. Arab friends are generous with time and efforts to help you and are willing to help you even in their inconvenience. They are far more concern about your welfare. If you spend much time in Arab countries, it would be a great loss if you have no Arab friends. A Coward -Premchand In the story â€Å"A Coward† Premchand shows how cultural difference with in the culture creates problem among the people who live in the same society. Basically the Hindu cast system has created problems among the people in the case of marriage in the Indian subcontinent. Moreover, the gap between the traditional mind and the modern mind divide the people clearly in to opposite poles. Most of the people still stick to their conservative beliefs due to which, the gap has always remained unfulfilled in the story. Keshav- a Brahmin boy falls in love with Prema- a girl from Banya caste. In the beginning Keshav seems to be very strong because he is read to undergo any hardships that might come on his way to materialize his love. He convinces Prema to be bold and fight against the conservative mind. Prema, who is loyal to her parents and cultural norms, doesn’t close show any interest to flourish their relationship. However, she doesn’t dare to live her life without Keshav. As Prema goes home, she thinks about Keshav and collects her strength to tell her relationship with Keshav to her parents. In the beginning her parents rejects it strongly but they agree when she put her life at stake. Prema’s father goes to talk with Keshav’s father, who reacts very rudely to him. However, he tolerates being the father of a girl. Then Prema writes a letter to Keshav informing him that she is ready to undergo to any shorts of difficulties if he is ready to accept her as his life partner. She also writes that her parents are anxious to meet him and he is called for dinner. Prema waits for Keshav impatiently but neither he nor his letter comes. Only the next morning, Prema gets the letter of Keshav in which she finds him unexpectedly coward and distal. Her parents ask her about his response but she tells them nothing she hides her pain the whole day and the next morning she commits suicide. In this way, this story shows the cultural problems of the same society due to the conservative feelings of the people regarding caste. The system of castism has divided the society into higher and lower class and in which the so-called higher class people dominate the lower class people. They always deny the identity and existence of lower class people. In the story as too, Prema’s father faced humiliating behaviors from Keshav’s father- the treatment to lower class people by upper class in general. However, after all, lovers like Prema and Keshav are killing themselves due to the fear of social parts which are almost impossible for them to cross. Chapter – Two Education (Summaries of Core Readings ) School Is Bad for Children -John Holt In the present essay, â€Å"School is Bad for Children†, John Holt criticizes the existence teaching approach particularly in American schools and formal education in general. But this does not mean that he is against formal education. His major concern lies in improving the school education by making it more children centered and child friendly. Holt says that the students on the very first day look more smart, confident, resourceful, persistent and independent than he will ever be in his schooling again. Already, a child has solved great mystery of language before coming school and such a complicated work a child never has to face in his rest of life. He/she has made it possible by exploring, by experimenting, by developing own model of grammar of language, by trying it out and seeing whether it works by gradually changing it and refining it until it does work, along with this, the child even learn various concepts if life which school think only they teach him. Disadvantages of School i. In a child’s first arrival in school he is taught that learning is separate from living. It is said to him that living were out there and learning we in here and there are no connections between them. ii. A child is taught that learning is a passive process, something that someone else does to you instead you do for yourself. After coming to school a child learns that he is a blank sheet of paper for other people to write on it. The potentiality, interest, curiosity, needs, the strength and weakness are counted as worthless. Only the thing that counts in school is what they know, what they think is important, what they want you to do, think and be. The child learns how to be lazy in school. He even learns to pretend and cheat others that he is doing something even if sergeant is not looking him. iii. A child comes to school curiously, curious about other people, particularly of other students but school teaches him to be indifferent. A child learns how to live without paying attention on others around him. Nobody says anything truthful since everybody is playing a role as in a charade. Recommendation for the improvement of school i. Abolish compulsory school attendance. For this every year students should be given a large number of authorized absences, the system of compulsory attendance was useful step in past which had protected children from their labor exploitation in farm, house, mine or factory. Today the laws help nobody, not schools, not the teachers, not the students. As for protecting the children from exploitation, the chief and indeed only exploiters of children there days are the schools. for those children who are not joining college, school is just a useless time waster, preventing from earning some money or doing some useful work or even doing some true learning. There are some objections regarding this that if kinds didn’t have to go to school they’d all be out in the street. According to the Holt, it has no any possibility. In the first place, even if the school stayed in the same condition children would spend some time there because they would be likely to find their friend there. Secondly, the school would change according to the interest of the children and at last, those children who didn’t want to go to school could fine other things to do like many children now do during their summer and holidays. ii. There is something easier we could

Angels Essays (1714 words) - Abrahamic Religions, Mythology

Angels Angels Around our pillows golden ladders rise, And up and down the skies, With winged sandals shod, The angels come and go, The messengers of God! ~Richard Henry Stoddard~ Angelos, AYN jul, are both words that mean ?angel?. This goes to show that angels are widespread though out the world. Beliefs and ideas on angels are common among a variety of people in many places and within many religions. As to what a ?true? angel is, in definition, is undecided. Whether there really are angels is the supreme question. The idea of an angel dates back to the 5th century to the religion of Zoroastrianism. Angels were mere agents of a supreme deity. It was believed that there were six archangels who guarded Ahura Mazda (the wise Lord). (Americana 837) The Jews believed that the origin of a devil is from the fallen angels. Judaism accepted the idea that the end of the world would be when the angels of God would defeat Satan and his fallen angels once and for all. The Christians then adopted the beliefs on angels. In fact, at one point church councils worried that Christian's devotion to angels was challenging their devotion to God. (Lewis 220, 221) Angels were actually mentioned in the Christian Bible. There are over 300 references within the New and Old Testament. In the Bible the biblical God sent angels out to carry messages, protect, destroy, and offer praise. However, in the Hebrew scriptures, or the Old Testament, angels play a much larger role. They constitute the court of heaven and they surround the throne of God. (Lewis xiii, 72,73,) Just as the Christians adopted ideas about angels from Judaism, Islam adopted their ideas from Christianity. In Islamic theology, angels are said to have been created before man and were of a finer nature. Just as angels were under God in the Christian religion, angels in Islam serve, worship and obey their god, Allah. Angels are also mentioned in the Koran and play a very important role in Islam. (Lewis 220, 221) Because of the varieties of people and religions in the world, there are many beliefs as to what angels are and what their purpose is. Experts who study angels say that angels are created in the human mind in response to a need. People get great comfort in believing in angels in that they hear their prayers, guide, protect, and encourage. There is a rising interest in angels especially in this age of uncertainty. (Lewis xiii-xvi) It is believed that angels were created by God and are not humans who have died. They can not marry or reproduce. It was said that angels are placed a little higher than man is but through redemption man becomes higher. (?Fascinating Facts?) Angels, archangels, cherubim, seraphim were and still are sources of inspiration for painters and sculptors. Until the 10th century angels were curiously formed because no one knew the true appearance of an angel. Different artists portrayed angels in different ways. Giotto was the first to approach and ideal represtention of angels. Fra Angelico was the first to succeed in portraying absolutely unearthly angels. They did not resemble any human creature. Michelangelo's angels had no wings and da Vinci's angels smiled. Rachael's angels were sexless, spiritual, and graceful. He displayed their intelligence and power. Angels were usually shown as feminine. In some cases though, angels resembled a beautiful boy or happy child. (Lewis 56-58) Of all the different beliefs in angels, some are very common beliefs among them. One is that they are completely loyal to whomever they are below. They are loyal also to the people they are helping because they don't have their own agenda. Another common characteristic is infallible discernment. Angels are separated from the human race therefore they are not subject to the confusions of our world. For example, they know the difference between right and wrong and there is no question. An angel's thoughts and actions are pure. Another point about angels is that among their enormous number, no two are alike. Many people believe in angels because it gives them comfort, others believe because they themselves have had experiences with them. There are three types of ways that communication with these spiritual beings is possible. The first way

HOW TO BUILD A WEB-PAGE essays

HOW TO BUILD A WEB-PAGE essays Building a Web-page is fairly easy, it takes time and patients.The main purpose of a Web-page is to tell people about yourself or to tell someone about the News or gossip about your favorite Soap Opera,to send out information basically. The first thing you need to do is to make sure you have the right software,if you do not have the software we are about to discuss you can always use tools off the internet;the two programs i like using are Maromedia's"Dreamweaver 4" and Frontpage Express. Both are tools used in building the Web-page that are excellent to have. Next you make a simple page that is like a cover page on an essay,you are describing the name of the page,showing a sample of what you will see, and then add a link to the next page. Now you are ready to add a background so from here you will go up with your pointer,click on format and go down to "Background" or you can add sound to the page. While you are building your site here is a "Need to know" bit of information, make sure you put images and everything you add to the page into the same folder if you do not the page will not work right so save everything together including the page itself. Another important factor is when saving your page to your hardrive save it as "Index.htm or Index.html" the reason why you do this is because Index is set as the default page and when your browser starts up it looks for it first. Now you are ready to upload your images and your site to the internet this is pretty easy to do in the sever you will find the file manager and from the file manager you can choose the option to upload your site to the internet when you do this you will upload images everything you have put on that site including the htm or html files and then your site should be up and running. I hope this Essay helps someone out so good luck. ...

Plato and Descartes on the Soul Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Plato and Descartes on the Soul - Essay Example † to which the former replied, â€Å"No, by God, I haven’t. Are you really in the position to assert that?† (Lorenz), is also the modern man’s rebuttal. There perhaps can never be an end to the discussion of the topic until one soul will come and show us all where we could have been wrong and where we could have been right in our arguments about it. As the soul is not a physical being that we can say where it is while we know its existence or can we tell where it has gone or what happens to it when we know its demise. However, although the issue has never been quite resolved, enlightenment on the issue have been initiated by such great philosophers like Plato and Descartes whose thoughts would be the main sources of this paper, seeing where they meet and where they contrast. Plato is the well known student of Socrates who carried with him most of his mentor’s philosophies and brought them to the existence it enjoys until this day. The son of wealthy Athenians, he sought education from well known philosophers during his time and has learned a great deal from them, taking his education seriously. He had been a good student, looking to the benefits of education rather than squandering their wealth in the pursuits of young men his age when he was seriously following his teachers. Rene Descartes on the other hand is not just a French Philosopher but also a Scientist, Psychologist and Mathematician who is popularly known for his Cartesian system. He also known for his philosophy of ‘cogito ergo sum’ meaning, ‘I reflect, therefore I am’ meaning. This, he uses to support his stand in the existence of the soul whether in the body or after the destruction of the body. Having been influenced by the early Greek philosophers who believed that a person is not just a body but has a soul, both Plato and Descartes believed the same notion, yielding to the idea that the soul is immoral in contrast to what some Greeks he ld like Glaucon. While Glaucon believed that the soul is like breath or smoke that can be extinguished during death, Plato most agreed to his mentor, Socrates, when it comes to the understanding of the soul. In Phaedo, Plato displayed his conversations with Socrates which expressed the two philosophers’ agreements and disagreements. They argue that the soul is immortal because it is life and is life in itself as fire is heat and is heat by itself. Descartes on the other hand does not offer much to his belief about the immortality of the soul but probably has adopted the general notion that truly, the soul is eternal and he approached his philosophy with the help of Science. During his time, the pineal gland was a subject for study among philosophers and scientists and he held it as the seat of interaction of the soul and body but not the abode of the soul (Lokhorst). The pineal gland, to him is th place where all thoughts are formed (custance.org). He believed that the brain is different from the soul and made a distinct separation among the body, soul and brain. The body an brain are to simply mechanistic, taking for example the animals who do not have souls, act mechanically in response to the circumstances in their surroundings. Human beings on the other hand differentiated from the animals through their souls because even if they have bodies and brains like the animals, they have sense perceptions and physical passions. He further explains that though these passions are expressed through the body, the awareness of the actions lies in the soul. Similarly or more on the contrary, for Plato, the soul distinguishes animate from inanimate. He claims that it is what makes a body, living, breathing and moving (Lorenz). Plato then considers animals and plants to

The Amen Corner (response paper) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The Amen Corner (response paper) - Essay Example Her movements are natural and a way too expressive, but it is good for the performance as it corresponds to the plot of the play. She is persuasive even when she sits on a chair because her movements and behavior do not change to more passive or less engaged mode. Overall, her performance adds drive to the play and she copes with her task successfully. 2. All actors dynamically move around the stage. There is a certain rotation to give each actor some time for taking a leading role. These actors usually stand in the middle or in the front positions towards other actors. It makes them visible for other actors and spectators. It is evident that even when the actors sit, they have to move and express their engagement. The arrangement of benches on the stage makes the stalls to join the space of the church. It is very engaging for people as they are offered to take part in the performance too. On the other hand, when the action takes place in the church, all characters have their major place, but their conduct seems to be not realistic because they are all too enthusiastic. Every actor who takes a lead manifests their character a bit aggressively, and it makes transition from one role to the other unnatural. At the same time, when scene moves from church to home, the situation improves. Actors behave naturally and manage to establish homely atmosphere on the state. In this way, directors work can be considered successful because it adds dynamics to the play and let some space for each character to remain individual and avoid merging with the

Literature Review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Literature Review - Essay Example Both literature reviews and annotated bibliography provided an ordered list of sources used to write a research paper or a thesis. Most research works are based on works or findings of other scholars. The findings can either be applied in the qualitative or quantitative surveys that are carried out through such scholarly works. This indicates that using ideas or information from other researchers is unavoidable. Annotated bibliographies and literature review enable a scholar to acknowledge other scholars who provided a basis for their research work. In addition, through the literature reviews and annotated bibliographies, scholars are able to give the basis or the foundation of their research topic (Fink, 2009). This is achieved by giving a description of previous researches in other related topics. Despite the outstanding similarities between the two, literature reviews are not annotated bibliographies. Annotated bibliography contains an ordered list of sources used in the research works and their respective authors. In addition, annotated bibliographies give a short description that highlight the relevance of those sources in the research work. On the other hand, literature reviews is an essay containing background information about the different the sources used in research work. The description that accompanies a source in a literature review informs the reader about the quality and the relevance of the source to the study. Literature reviews also include important factors or points from the source that has been applied in the work. Thus, a literature review summarizes and analyzes an already existing arguments and deductions. Precisely, annotated bibliography present facts about different sources used to write the research work while literature reviews provide a brief summary, evaluation and analysis about different ideas, topics and arguments contained in the source. Different sources have different implications on the resultant research work. The author has the responsibility of informing the readers about the credibility of different sources used in the research. Authors use annotated bibliographies to inform the readers about the accuracy, relevance and the quality of the source used in research work (Fink, 2009). On the other hand, literature reviews are used inform the readers the pros and cons of the sources in relation to the research topic. In a literature review, an author or a researcher has the abilities to criticize the source by highlighting the missing elements. In addition literature reviews gives the direction or trend of future research work based on different sources used in the research. Finally, a literature review places a particular research work in its immediate context. This implies that in a literature review, a researcher provides a succession of ideas in a particular research topic. This makes it possible for the researcher to identify a gap of knowledge or ideas that can be filled by the present research work. In addition, a literature review provides a response to particular problems that can be used to improve the discipline. This enables the author to create a case for further investigation. On the other hand, annotated bibliography provides criticism to different sources based on their quality in relation to the research work. Unlike annotated bibliog

Plasmodium: The Malaria Parasite

Plasmodium: The Malaria Parasite An endoparasitic protozoan that causes malaria, Plasmodium, requires two hosts to complete its life cycle in; usually a mosquito and a vertebrate. Female Anopheles mosquito is responsible in the transmission of malaria in human beings. Human malaria is caused by four identified species of Plasmodia, namely Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium malariae and Plasmodium ovale. Recently, in addition to these four species, the simian parasite Plasmodium knowlesi have been identified to infect humans in Malaysia (Cox-Singh, Singh, 2008). Malaria can be treated in just 48 hours; however the delay in diagnosis and treatment can cause fatal complications. Malaria caused by P. falciparum is also called malignant or falciparum malaria (Rich et al., 2009), which is observed to be the most dangerous form of malaria with the highest rates of complications and mortality. A dormant stage in the life cycle of P. vivax and P. ovale may results into relapses long afterwards. The malaria d ue to P. knowlesi can also cause life threatening symptoms(Cox-Singh et al., 2008). P. malariae is associated with milder clinical manifestations in comparison to other species. The systematic position of malaria parasite described by (Mhelhorn H. and Walldorf V., 1988) is as follows: Kingdom Protista Sub Kingdom Protozoa Phylum Apicomplexa Class Sporozoa Sub Class Coccidia Order Haemosporidae Sub Order Aconoidina Family Haemosporidae Genus Plasmodium 1.2 History of Malaria The term malaria is derived from Italian word mala bad and aria air. Italians used this word to refer the cause of intermittent fevers associated with exposure to marsh air or miasma. In the first century A.D., Roman scholar Marcus Terentius Varro (116-27 BC) suggested that swamps breed certain animalcula which is not visible with naked eyes and we breathe it through our mouth and nose into the body, where they cause grave maladies. Later, about 30 A.D., two types of tertian fevers were described by Celsus. He concurred with the views expressed by Varro. In 1716, Italian physician Giovanni Maria Lancisi, first demonstrated a characteristic black pigmentation of the brain and spleen in the victims of malaria. In 1816, Giovanni Rasori (1766-1837) of Parma suggested microorganism as a cause for the disease. Later, in 1847, a German physician, Heinrich Meckel, identified round, spindle-shaped or ovoid structures containing black pigment granules in protoplasmic masses in the microscopic slides of blood from a patient with fever and observed similar entities in the spleen of an insane person during the autopsy. In 1848 Schutz observed these pigments in the internal organs of patient who had died of malaria. Soon afterwards, Virchow (1849) observed these pigmented bodies in the blood of a patient who had died from chronic malaria and specifically associated it with malaria. Finally, Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran in 1888 named a living organism as Oscillaria malariae and suggests it as the malaria parasite. In 1885 Camillo Golgi, established that there were at least two forms of the disease, one with tertian periodicity (fever every other day) and one with quartan periodicity (fever every third day). He demonstrated that the rupture of shizoints and release of merozoites into the blood stream coincided with the fever and correlated the severity of symptoms with parasite load in the blood. In 1906, Nobel Prize was awarded in Medicine for his discoveries in neurophysiology. In 1897, the sexual cycle of malaria parasite was demonstrated by Dr. McCallum, William G and Opie of Johns Hopkins Hospital. In the same year, Ronald Ross demonstrated the presence of oocysts in the midgut of female anopheline mosquito and soon afterwards, he (1898) demonstrated the sporozoites infection in salivary glands of the mosquito and also carried out transmission of malaria in birds with an infected mosquito. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1902 for establishing the fact that infected mosquitoes are respons ible for transmission of malaria. In 1907, Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran, was awarded the Nobel Prize for Medicine and Physiology for his discovery of the malarial parasite and other significant contribution to parasitology. In 1975 William Trager cultured P. falciparum in a medium of red blood cells. In 1987, a Colombian biochemist named Dr. Manuel Elkin Patarroyo developed the first synthetic Spf66 vaccine for P. falciparum infection. In 2002, the genome of parasite Plasmodium falciparum and the vector Anopheles gambiae were successfully sequenced. 1.3 Public and Global Health Burden Malaria is one of the oldest infectious diseases known to mankind. Malaria influenced outcomes of many wars and fates of many kings would have been different. It has competently forced many military defeats and responsible for decline of nations, often caused casualties more than the weapons could have. For centuries it has been responsible in preventing economic development in various regions of the earth. Malaria occurred in more than 100 countries and affects more than 2400 million people in the tropics, from South America to the Indian peninsula. Human malaria in tropical and subtropical areas accounts approximately 40% of the world at risk for the disease. The cause of this distribution in tropics is because of ideal breeding and living conditions for the anopheles mosquito. About 300 million to 500 million people suffer from malaria annually. Most lethal form of malaria infection is focused in the African continent, especially among children under five. In total, sub- Saharan A frica show most (90%) of the malarial cases and two thirds of the remaining 10% cases occur in six countries- India, Sri Lanka, Colombia, Vietnam, Brazil and Solomon Islands (Figure 1.1). WHO forecasts a 16% augmentation in malaria cases annually and about 1.5 million to 3 million deaths due to malaria every year (85% of these occur in Africa), accounting for about 4-5% of all moartality in the world. One child dies every 20 sec. due to malaria somewhere in Africa and there is one malarial death every 12 sec somewhere in the world. 50 million peoples have died of malaria. Among the major infectious diseases, malaria ranks third in cause of martality- after pneumococcal acute respiratory infections and tuberculosis (WHO., 2005). A brief account stated that ~ 30000 visitors who visited endemic countries developed malaria; where as 1% may succumb to the disease. Malaria can be accounted for 2.6 % of the worlds overall burden of diseases, thus raising expectations that it can climb to n umber one of the highest killer infectious diseases by the end of the century. Total global estimates of the annual expenditure (in 1995) showed a whooping US$ 2 billion directed towards malaria. World Health Organization reported it as a re-emerging infectious disease, and specify as infectious killer and number 1 priority tropical disease (WHO., 2005). The recent WHO World Malaria Report registers a global impact of approximately 225 million new clinical malaria infections associated with 781,000 deaths (WHO., 2010). Particularly, in the tropical countries, malaria is a health problem that setbacks social and economical developments. Malaria is commonly associated with poverty, and represents a major burden to economic and social development, costing an estimated sum of greater than US$ 6 billion for the year 2010 (Sachs. J and Malaney. P, 2002; WHO., 2010). Early diagnosis and prompt treatment are two basic elements in easing the impact of malaria. While progress in these areas h as been remarkable, the emerging insecticide resistant vectors, population movements, environmental disturbances, disintegrative health services and wide spread antimalarial drug resistance have constrained this mission. In early 60s, under the guidance of the Figure 1.1 Global distribution of malaria. (Reprinted from Nat Rev Microbiol.) (Bell et al., 2006) World Health Organization, malaria was nearly eradicated from most parts of the world owing to well planned anti malarial campaigns over the world. However, soon after, a resurgence of malaria took place in 1970s, which could be due to several reasons described below. Man made complacency and laxity in anti malarial campaigns; conflicts and wars; migrations; deteriorating health systems; poverty Drug resistance in parasite Insecticide resistance in vector and ban on use of DDT Environment global warming causing increased breeding and life span of the vector Jet age shrinking world spread of malaria from endemic areas to all other parts of the world. 1.4 Life Cycle of Malaria PARASITE The complex life cycle of malaria parasite involves two hosts; an insect vector (anopheles mosquito) and a vertebrate host (human). In search of a blood meal, a malaria-infected female Anopheles mosquito inoculates the infectious sporozoites into the human host. The malaria infection begins as these viable sporozoites invade liver cells and develop into mature schizonts, which in turn rupture and release invasive merozoites into blood stream. In P. vivax and P. ovale an arrested phase [hypnozoites] can remain dormant in the liver and re-invade the bloodstream after weeks, or even years later and cause infection, this delayed primary blood infection is termed as relapse. The initial asexual replication in liver is termed as exo-erythrocytic schizogony. In the normal developing exo-erythrocytic schizont, the cytoplasm of the parasite becomes subdivided and the ensuing invasive merozoites develop. These emergent merozoites are then released upon rupture of the mature schizont and invade the erythrocyte. The parasites undergo asexual multiplication in the erythrocyte, termed as erythrocytic schizogony. Redifferentiation of intra-erythrocytic merozoites into the feeding trophozoites occurs then. The ring stage Figure 1.2 Life cycle of malaria parasite (Plasmodium falciparum) trophozoites mature into schizonts and when rupture releasing merozoites to begin another cycle of red blood cell infection. However, the majority of merozoites entering an erythrocyte will develop into asexual schizonts, a small fraction can develop into the first sexual stage of life cycle (gametocytes). The rupture of mature schizont also releases the metabolic debris, which is toxic to the host and play a role in stimulating the clinical manifestations of the disease. The female anopheles mosquito must take blood meals on regular basis to support the development of eggs in successive batches. When biting malaria infected vertebrate host, she will take up infected erythrocyte and the gametocytes. Both female (macrogametocytes) and male (microgametocytes) are ingested by female anopheles mosquito during a blood meal. The asexual division of parasites in the mosquito is termed as sporogonic cycle. While in the mosquitos gut gametocytes are triggered by the fall in temperature and begin the formation of gametes. The microgamete penetrates the macrogamete generating zygote. Soon after the zygotes become motile and elongated structure termed as ookinetes, which invade the midgut wall of the mosquito where they develop into oocysts. The sporozoites emerge from ruptured oocysts make their way to reside in the mosquito salivary glands. Inoculation of these viable sporozoites into a new human host to maintain the malaria life cycle (Figure 1.2) (Bannister, Mitchell, 2003). 1.5 THE PLASMODIUM GENOME SEQUENCE The genome sequences of six Plasmodium species have now been published. The complete sequences of the P.falciparum 3D7 strain and the rodent malaria P.y. yoelii 17XNL clone (Carlton et al., 2002; Gardner et al., 2002) appeared in 2002 and the genomic data of two more rodent malaria species, the P.berghei ANKA clone and P. chabaudi AS clone, were published in 2005 (Hall et al., 2005). Recently, the genome sequences of the human malaria P.vivax Salvador 1 strain and the human/simian malaria P.knowlesi H strain, along with a comparative analysis with P.falciparum, were released (Carlton et al., 2008; Pain et al., 2008). Thus, this genus has the highest number of sequenced species of any eukaryotic organism yet (Birkholtz et al., 2008). Comparative analysis of the publicly of the available Plasmodium genomes revealed that they are all haploid with a standard size of 23-27 Mb, which is distributed among 14 linear chromosomes between 0.5-3.0 Mb in size. The base composition varies among the different species, with the rodent and P.falciparum genomes being extremely A+T rich (80.6% on average and close to 90% in introns and intergenic regions in P.falciparum) in contrast with the more G+C rich P.knowlesi and P.vivax genomes (37.5% and 42.3% respectively) Each Plasmodium genome has in the order of 5000-6000 predicted genes, most of which (51%) contain at least one intron and ~60% are orthologus among the different species (Hall, Carlton, 2005; Hall et al., 2005). The difference in gene number is the result of the differential gene expansion in distinct lineages and the presence of large variant gene families that are involved with antigenic variation (Hall, Carlton, 2005). The unique genes of the different species are o ften localised within the subtelomeric regions and code for immunodominant antigens (Hall, Carlton, 2005). The mean gene length of the three sequenced human malarias (including P. knowlesi) is~ 2.2 to 2.3 kb, compared to the average of 1.3 to 1.6 kb in other organisms (Gardner et al., 2002). The reason for these long gene lengths is not known and this is compounded by the fact that these long genes usually encode hypothetical proteins with unknown function (Gardner et al., 2002). Gene-mapping studies of conserved genes have shown that gene location, order and even exon-intron boundaries have been preserved over large regions across the three sequenced rodent Plasmodium species and P.falciparum(Hall, Carlton, 2005). In addition to the nuclear genome , the parasites also have a liner mitochondrial genome of ~6 kb in the case of P.falciparum , which is smallest mitochondrial genome known (Painter et al., 2007) and a ~35 kb circular apicoplast genome (Gardner et al., 2002). The P.falciparum nuclear genome exhibits minimal redundancy in transfer RNA (tRNA) and encodes 43 tRNAs (Gardner et al., 2002) compared to the ~30 of Homo sapiens (Strachan T and Read A, 1998). The parasite tRNA bind all 64 possible codons except TGT and TGC that both specify cysteine (Cys). As no other codons specify Cys, it is possible that these tRNA genes are located within the currently unsequenced regions , since Cys is incorporated into P.falciparum proteins (Gardner et al., 2002). The small P.falciparum mitochondrial genome does not encode any tRNAs (Vaidya et al., 1989) compared to the 22 tRNA of the circular 16.6 kb human mitochondrial genome (Anderson et al., 1981). The P.falciparum mitochondrion therefore imports tRN As from the cytoplasm , whereas the apicoplast genome encodes sufficient tRNAs for protein synthesis within the organelle (Wilson et al., 1996). The P.falciparum genome does not contain tandemly repeated ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene clusters as seen in many other eukaryotes, but it contains individual 18S-5.8S-28S rRNA units at loci on seven of the chromosomes(Gardner et al., 2002). The sequence of the particular rRNA genes is distinct in the different units and the expression of each unit is developmentally regulated, depending on the stages of the parasite life cycle It is anticipated that by transcribing different rRNAs at different life stages, the parasite could change its ribosomal properties and the translation rate of all or specific messenger RNA (mRNA), which could alter the cell growth rate or cell development pattern. Previously , the rRNA expressed in the mosquito was described as S(sexual)-type and that expressed in the human host as A (asexual) type(Gardner et al., 2002). Parasite rRNA is also species-specific and can be assessed for diagnostic purposes (Singh et al., 2004). More than 60% of the predicted 5268 ope n reading frames (ORFs) of P.falciparum have no sequence similarity to genes from other sequenced organisms (Gardner et al., 2002). The absence of sequence similarity complicates characterization of the unknown ORFs, but might hold the answer to finding selective drug targets (Bozdech et al., 2003). There is currently a dedicated initiative aimed at improving the annotation status of P.falciparum led by the Plasmodium database, PlasmoDB (www.plasmodb.org). 1.6 Malaria Incidence in Different States of India The malariometric index evaluated as annual parasite incidence (API) indicates the number of malaria cases per thousand of population. As per the National Vector Borne Disease Control Programme (NVBDCP) incidence records, in most part of India, the API was 5 API were scattered in the states of Gujarat, Goa, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Orissa, the northeastern states and Karnataka (Kumar A et al., 2007). The proportion of occurrence of P. falciparum and P. vivax differs in various parts of India. Most of the indo-gangatic plains, northwestern India, northern hilly states, and southern state like Tamil Nadu have > 90% P. vivax infections, and the rest are P. falciparum. This situation is reversed in forested areas inhabited by ethnic tribes, where the proportion of P. falciparum is 30-90%. In the remaining areas P. falciparum prevail between 10% and 30%. Although Orissa has a population of 36.7 million (3.5%), it contributed most (25%) of a total of 1.5-2 milli on reported annual malaria cases, 39.5% of total P. falciparum malaria, and 30% of deaths caused by malaria in India (Source NVBDCP, India). Similarly, in the other states, forest ecosystems inhabited by ethnic tribes lives mainly in Figure 1.3 Prevalance of Plasmodium falciparum in India meso to hyperendemic conditions of malaria, where the preponderance of P. falciparum exist upto the extent of 90% or even more (Kumar et al., 2007) (Figure 1.3). 1.7 MALARIA Control and Prevention A global strategy for malaria control was developed by W.H.O. in a ministerial conference at Amsterdam, held in October 1992. The strategy broadly suggests emphasis on diagnosis and treatment in place of earlier trend of emphasis on vector control as a strategy for malaria control. The salient aspects of this strategy were early diagnosis and treatment; prevention of malarial deaths; promotion of personal protection measures like use of ITMs; forecasting, early detection and control of malaria epidemics; monitoring, evaluation and integration of activity in primary health centres; and operational research in field sites. Malaria prevention was classified at the level of personal protection, the prophylaxis and the malaria vaccines. Protective measures adopted at individual level and at family level not only help in protection of the individual against mosquito bites but also prevents spread of malaria in locality. These measures indirectly helped in reducing the mosquito population b y denying the blood meal which is an essential for nourishment of the mosquito eggs in the female anopheles. Protection measures at personal level against mosquitoes includes: Prevention of mosquitoes from entering the house, protection from mosquito bites and prohibiting the mosquitoes from resting inside house. All these prevention activities need the following; i. Protective Clothing ii. Mosquito Repellents iii. Insecticide vaporizers iv. Mosquito nets v. Air conditioning The absence of vaccines necessitates the use of drugs against malaria. All visitors from non-endemic area to a malarious area should have presumptive antimalarial drugs which offer protection against clinical attacks of malaria in that particular malaria endemic area (www.who.int/malaria). The practice of anti-malarial drugs to prevent the development of malaria is known as chemoprophylaxis. The choice of chemoprophylaxis differs depending on the species and drug resistance prevalence in a country. It must be remembered that no chemoprophylaxis regime provides 100% protection. Therefore it is essential to have personal protection from mosquito bites as well as to practice the chemoprophylaxis. Drugs used for chemoprophylaxis include: chloroquine, sulfadoxine, pyrimethamine, atovaquone plus proguanil, proguanil, halofantrine, doxycycline and mefloquin (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/antimalarialdrug.html). The effective way to control any infectious disease is indeed to have a safe and effective vaccine, but even after decades of malaria research, an effective malaria vaccine is still elusive. The major culprit in not having an effective malaria vaccine is complex life cycle of the parasite which involves vector mosquitoes and human. In turn, parasites allelic diversity and antigenic variations make the development and implementation of effective malaria control intervention more problematic. In the present scenario of increasing resistance against antimalarials by parasite and the insecticide resistance shown by the anopheles mosquito, it is evident that an intervention at multiple stages of life cycle will be an appropriate way of combating malaria. Malaria vaccines for different stages of life cycle will therefore play a major role in future malaria interventions. Evaluation of new malaria vaccine candidates in malaria endemic countries is required. The present situation demands suf ficient sites in malaria endemic countries for testing potential malaria vaccines in future. 1.8 Antimalarial drug resistance One of the major control strategies against malaria is prompt treatment of malaria patients with effective antimalarial drugs; however one of the major challenges in the battle against malaria in recent years is the development of drug resistance in the malaria parasites. A continuous research and monitoring is crucial when trying to control and diminish this development. Antimalarial drug resistance in the malaria parasite, both in vitro and in vivo has been related to changes at molecular level in the malaria parasite (P. falciparum and P. vivax).

Heartbeat of a City: The Influence of Soccer in Rome :: Free Essays Online

Heartbeat of a City: The Influence of Soccer in Rome The first time I went to Italy the taxi driver that picked my parents and I up at Rome’s Fiumicino airport had his radio turned to a station playing a Serie A soccer match between two Italian powerhouse teams, AS Roma and Turin’s Juventus FC. At first I just assumed the low-level, even sound of the announcers voice was merely a talk radio show, but as I heard the excitement in his voice build as each team became closer to scoring, and the background sounds of the crowds chanting and singing for their teams I began to understand the phenomenon that calico, the Italian word for soccer, was in Italy. Literally the heartbeat of a nation whose history has been tumultuous to say the least, soccer has been a mainstay in Italian culture for generations. Known as the world’s most popular sport, professional soccer has helped create and define different groups of people around the world for longer than a century. The hoopla surrounding teams, geographic areas fans dwell in, and political ideals associated with individual clubs have carved an identity for millions of supporters whose heart and soul becomes dedicated to their favorite players, stadiums, and coaches. Soccer teams and their fans can give us a window into how people can be divided and defined by their allegiances and ideals, and why those with similar views band together to create a familiar environment for themselves. Large questions still remain about the role of soccer in today’s world. Why do people in Europe and abroad become so dedicated to their teams, over all other cultural factors like politics, clubs, and organizations? How does soccer affect Italian and Roman political allegiances, and how does the commitment of each team’s fans affect the Roman urban space, the policies and reactions of the Italian government, and each other? By uncovering and defining the importance of soccer in Rome, I am arguing that Roman soccer fans are not only divided by team colors and name, but also by geography within the city, political allegiances, and social differences. I am also arguing that the importance of soccer represents far more than an interest in a game, but a representation of all that a Roman citizen, as well as the majority of all Europeans, live for and love.

Dreaming in Cuban

Ricky Randazzo Dr. Littler English 190 8 June 2012 Section 1 2. Compare what Cuba means for Pilar in the beginning of Dreaming in Cuban with what it comes to represent by the novels end. Things that come to be expected can often be taken for granted. People who grow up in the United States come to expect certain freedoms because they have never been without those freedoms. Pilar in Dreaming in Cuban by Christina Garcia is no different. She was born in Cuba and was brought to United States when she was two years old.In the beginning of the novel Pilar dreams of being in Cuba, but by the end of the novel Pilar knows she belongs in NY. One night Pilar see’s her father with another women, she runs away to Miami to catch a flight to be in her beloved Cuba. Little does Pilar know her feelings about Cuba are about to change. Growing up in NYC Pilar doesn’t feel like she’s American or Cuban. This could be the reason for Pillar’s controversial painting of the statu e of liberty. Pilar is an artist, specializing in more abstract paintings.Pilar feels that art is the best way to express oneself and capture the idea of rebellion, and revolution. She feels like her mother Lourdes took her from Cuba against her will when she was to young to realize. Pilar has not been back to Cuba or seen her grandmother since. Pilar wants nothing more but to go back to Cuba. In the beginning of the novel Cuba represents something that was taken from her, something she wants back, something she wants to be apart of, something that she feels like she lost. She feels like her mother Lourdes is restraining her from returning to her beloved Cuba.This is possibly the reason why Pilar feels more connected with her grandma Celia in the beginning of the novel than her mother Lourdes. Celia loves Cuba the way Pilar thinks she loves Cuba. Pilar and Lourdes eventually return to Cuba for a week to see the family, reuniting them with Celia. When Pilar is finally in Cuba she rea lizes that it is not what she fantasized it to be. Pilar starts to realize all of the poverty in Cuba. She states, â€Å" look at those old American cars held together by rubber bands, don’t you know you could have new Cadillac’s with leather seats and power windows† (Garcia 221).Pilar is still naive at this point in the novel. She doesn’t understand the poverty in Cuba. Pilar also realizes that her and her grandmother Celia aren’t all that similar. She was searching for a mother like relationship with Celia because she thought they connected better than her and Lourdes did; however Pilar realizes that they are way different. They are so different it’s almost as if they speak different languages. Pilar realizes the toll Cuba had on her grandmother, she is old and run down both physically and mentally.Pilar realizes that Cuba did this to her grandmother. Perhaps what solidifies Pilar knowing she belongs in NY is the scene where she gets hit i n the face with the rock when trying to find Invanito. Blood is running down her face. She states that art couldn’t possibly capture what she was feeling at this moment. (Garcia)This is a way different Pilar then the beginning of the book. Where she believed that art captured this type of moment the best. Meaning that some things in life you just have to experience for yourself before you can have an accurate opinion.Pilar states that she belongs in NY by the end of the novel after being sure in the beginning of the novel that she belonged in Cuba. Pilar realized all the freedoms the United States gave her that Cuba couldn’t. Pilar realizes she couldn’t paint pictures she paints in the United States in Cuba. Pilar also realizes how serious the poverty and the fighting is in Cuba. Pilar realizes the toll Cuba had on her grandmother. Pilar like her mother Lourdes realizes how great of a place the United States could be.In the beginning of the novel Pilar took the freedoms that the United States gave her for granted, however only when she went to Cuba and had those freedoms taken away does she realize how great they really are. Section 2 1) Using a short story we have read and discussed during week 4, discuss how a parent/child relationship can enable but also inhibit an adolescent’s intellectual, emotional, and or spiritual growth. As a child you learn how to function in society by watching and learning from the people around you. The people that are around most as a child are your parents and siblings.A Parent/child relationship can enable but also inhibit an adolescent’s intellectual and emotional growth. In the short story â€Å"Bad Girls† by Joyce Oates, Marietta Murchison has three girls Icy, Orchid, and Crystal and their parent/child relationship does just that. Marietta is a single mom and her three daughters are in their teenage years. There are no instances in the text that suggest bad parenting from Marietta. S he loves her daughters and puts them as her number one priory over everything else. She even puts them over her relationship with Drum. Momma made her decision, like throwing a bolt to a lock door forever, she believed icy. She would never waiver in believing in Icy. Saying, â€Å"Nobody hurts my girls and gets away with it†Ã¢â‚¬  (Oates 424). Of course having a mother who loved them and put them first before anyone else enabled them intellectually and emotionally. This allowed them to go to school and to have a home with love. However with raising children everything isn’t black and white, children learn things not only through experiences they go through but also the experiences their mother goes through.During the course of the story Marietta dates some guys, and it is implied that she has been dating guys for a while. The girl’s father left when they were very young so they already developed a negative connotation towards men. Their mom moves from one meani ngless relationship to the next, their entire lives. This forces them to never trust any guy. They are confused and biased towards men. Orchard states, â€Å"Can a man have such feelings, like a women? Can a man be hurt? Is that possible? † (Oates). Orchards and the rest of the girls have a take on men that is severely skewed.The reason it is skewed is due to their mother’s relationships and experiences. Marietta Murchison was a great mom. She loved her girls very much and did everything in her power to protect them. This enabled her girls in a positive way to grow intellectually and emotionally. However her mom inadvertently inhibits their intellectual and emotional growth through her experiences and relationships. Her experiences and relationships force her girls to unintentionally distrust and misunderstand men. The Parent/child relationship between Marietta and her daughters enabled but also inhibited the adolescent’s intellectual and emotional growth.